Section 4: Human Performance Technology

Not all problems in learning and/or performance require an instructional solution. Many times a non-instructional approach is a more appropriate solution. This week's reading and reflection focuses on human performance, performance support systems, knowledge management systems, and the concept of informal learning.

Chapter 14 discusses the concept and evolution of human performance improvement. Several sections of chapter 14 present a variety of non-instructional solutions to performance problems. Identify a performance problem in your area of work and identify non-instructional solutions that may help solve the problem. 

                        For the past four years, I have worked with the same teaching partner while the third teacher on our team changed every year.  I consider the revolving door of our co-workers to be a performance problem.  The third teacher always came down from middle school to take the 6^th grade science and social studies position on an elementary campus.  The expectations for elementary students differ from the expectations for middle school students.  Our co-workers seemed to have trouble making the transition and moved on to a different grade level or subject the following year.

                        I believe the expectations provided by the administration for the new teacher were not clear, there was not timely and specific feedback when the teacher had concerns or made improvements, and there was a lack of knowledge sharing among science and social studies teachers. 

                        One reason I loved teaching 6^th grade math was the collaboration among sixth grade math teachers.  The 6^th grade math teachers from each campus met monthly to discuss ideas and concerns.  This was not required but the rewards outweighed the cost.  We gained open communication, knowledge sharing, feedback, and support from the administration. 

                        The goal of Human Performance Improvement is to “achieve, through people, increasingly successful accomplishments that are valued by the organization,” Trends and Issues in Instructional Design and Technology (p. 135).  To improve the performance of the third teacher on our team the administration can partner her with a specialized experienced teacher.  In this case, the mentor teacher could be the social studies or science facilitator.  The facilitator is already familiar with the students, curriculum, and other teachers of the same subjects and grades.  The mentor will work closely with the struggling teacher, set clear expectations for her performance and ensure that the necessary supplies for teaching are readily available.  By bringing together other sixth grade science and social studies teachers, a sense of community will be formed.  Within this community, the struggling teacher will sense a culture change and will become a member of a team.  Positive feedback from the administration is also required to keep the teacher motivated. 

Chapter 15 presents performance support systems. Define performance support systems and explain how a performance support system might (or might not) help solve the problem you identified above.

                        Performance support systems are relatively new, emerging in the early 90’s.  The earliest purpose of performance support was to provide users support during computer based tasks.  Throughout the years, the definition and capabilities of performance support has evolved.  The possible tasks to be supported can be found in a wide array of jobs including, education, government, industry, and medical.  The goal of performance support today is to provide tools that support the user at the moment of need and to provide support before and after the moment of need.  The support can be supplied electronically or by a mentor but the end desire is for the user to gain support through the available performance support and use other resources as secondary support. 

                        A more specific explanation of the above mentioned problem could be a lack of collaboration among sixth grade science and social studies teachers.  The struggling teacher was trained in the subject areas during college but she was not provided a team of teachers to collaborate with when issues and concerns arose.  The lack of collaboration and the lack of community can make a teacher feel alone and unsupported. 

                        A performance support system can be created to solve this problem.  After building a community among the teachers, the instructional facilitator mentioned above will create a blog to continue the teacher support electronically.  One major concern of teachers is the lack of time to meet during the work day with fellow teachers.  Creating an online community after the teachers have met and established relationships face to face will allow the community to continue.  The facilitator’s blog will include a discussion forum similar to the virtual office in our online classes.  This will allow the teachers to share ideas while the facilitator is able to answer questions.  The blog will also contain curriculum information, class discipline ideas, organizational tools, and links to online teaching tools.  The blog will allow the struggling teacher to ask for help throughout the day with almost instant feedback from the facilitator and her peers.   

Chapter 16 explains knowledge management: the way we manage information, share that information, and use it to solve organization problems. Organizations, such as schools, accumulate a great deal information/data, which must be organized in a way that we can make sense of it in order to use for making decisions. What knowledge would help solve the problem you identified above and how would that knowledge need to be collected and managed to help facilitate problem solving? 

                        The collection and management of knowledge can be done using a blog as mentioned above.  This knowledge management tool encourages collaboration and a sense of community.  The subject area facilitator will maintain the blog to ensure the information is accurate and up to date.  Explicit knowledge such as curriculum guides, district data on student performance, and training information will be stored on the blog for teacher reference.  The explicit data provided is actually common knowledge that everyone needs to know about.  This information will keep the group informed without needing to send out multiple emails. 

                       

                        The blog will also include threaded discussions.  The discussions will need to be maintained and organized by the facilitator to ensure information does not get lost.  When a topic changes, the discussion will need to be on a new titled thread.  This will allow teachers to quickly search the discussion titles to access information discussed in the past.  A chat room will allow real time conversations among teachers and the facilitator during conference, before, and after school.  The discussion thread and chat room will encourage the exchange of tacit knowledge.  As a teacher, I always admired certain teachers and wondered, “What is the trick?  What do they know that I don’t know?”  The exchange of tacit knowledge through an encouraging and unthreatening medium can give struggling teachers encouragement and add to their tool box of tricks for teaching. 

                        The facilitator has a major role in maintaining the blog and encouraging teachers to actually use it.  She must monitor discussions to ensure the mood is positive.  This is not a place to voice complaints.  She will also need to carefully correct misinformation without discouraging users from sharing.   

Chapter 17 describes types of informal learning. What informal learning experiences have you participated in at your organization?  Could those informal learning experiences be shared with others?  Could the knowledge gained in those settings be codified and managed?  And should it be managed or should the informal experiences be replicated or broadened for others?

            After graduating from undergrad, the majority of my meaningful learning has been informal.  As teachers, we all must participate in staff developments but how much do we actually learn and apply after attending?  How much of the knowledge we apply actually comes from the formal instruction compared to the knowledge we gained during the lunch break with colleagues discussing the staff development?  I have informally gained classroom management techniques, lesson plan ideas, and a deeper understanding of curriculum during lunch, conference time, and after school while informally meeting with teachers of the same grade and subject area. 

I think my informal learning experiences can be shared with others but as a classroom teacher, it is difficult to find the time to share, codify, and manage the knowledge.  This is where the instructional facilitator comes in.  She must provide the opportunity through knowledge management to share the information.  It is her role to codify and manage the information so it can be accessed by others.  This can be accomplished through a blog set up and managed by the facilitator.  The teachers would need encouragement and reinforcement to use the blog but if maintained well, the blog could become a place to broaden other’s experiences. 

Section 3: Evaluating, Implementing and Managing Instructional Programs and Projects

Section 3: Evaluating, Implementing and Managing Instructional Programs and Projects 

All too often instruction is developed with little thought as to how evaluation of learning or the effectiveness of the instruction will take place. When evaluation is considered on the front end of the instructional design process, it is often limited to evaluating whether the instructional design is more effective than traditional methods.

For this week's reflection activities, I would like for you to concentrate on the following:

Chapter 10 discusses evaluation in instructional design and provides you with two evaluation models, the CIPP and Kirkpatrick models for evaluation. Search for at least two other models used for evaluation and summarize these models. Describe how you would use them to evaluate your instruction.

Reflect on what other questions that instructional design evaluation should address besides whether the instructional design leads to comparable amounts of learning and learner satisfaction as traditional methods. What else would be useful to know?

Rossi’s Five Domain Evaluation Model allows the user to tailor the “evaluation to fit local needs, resources, and type of program,” Trends and Issues in Instructional Design and Technology (p. 98).  This model focusses “on one or more of the following domains: needs, theory, process/implementation, impact, and efficiency,” Trends and Issues in Instructional Design and Technology (p. 103).  From a teacher’s perspective, this method will allow the teacher to modify the evaluation to fit the needs of the class and the objectives.  Binkerhoff’s Success Case Method instructs the evaluator to compare the success/failure of similar programs to your program “so that success can become more widespread in the organization,” (103).  By combining Rossi’s and Binkerhoff’s models, an evaluator can focus the evaluation on particular needs while comparing programs to ensure success. 

I am currently working on my masters to become a certified school librarian.  One goal of librarians is to help with the implementation of technology in the school.  Rossi’s Five Domain Evaluation Model can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of iPads in the library while Binkerhoff’s Success Case Method can be used to compare similar programs.  As the librarian and evaluator, I will need to determine if there is a need for iPads in the library and what will be the purpose of the iPads.  Both models address these issues in step one.  I will work with teachers and administration to determine how the iPads will be used in the library and in the classrooms. 

According to Rossi’s model, I will need to conduct a program theory assessment to determine if “the program is conceptualized in a way that it should work,” (p. 98).  I can do this using Binkerhoff’s method of comparing programs.  I plan to locate and contact other libraries currently implementing an iPad program.  I will also research peer review journal articles for documented procedures and outcomes.  Once a plan is devised, a visual impact model can be created using Binkerhoff’s Success Case Method.  The model will be constructed using the comparison of other iPad programs.  The model will include learning objectives for students and teachers in column one, including: using the iPads for research, e-books, and apps.  The middle column will explain how the students and teachers are expected to access the iPads.  The iPads will be used in the library and can be checked out for classroom use.  The initial iPad instruction will be by the librarian either in the library or in the classroom.   The last column will illustrate the goals of the iPad program: students can independently access the iPads to contribute to learning in all subject areas.  The visual impact model is a plan that all participants can see and follow.  

After implementing the program, evaluation is still necessary.  We will need to conduct an impact assessment using Rossi’s model.  Was the iPad program instructionally effective?  Has the student’s intrinsic motivation improved?  To assess the impact, the librarian can compare learning outcomes from the previous year to this year on similar projects with and without the iPads. 

In a school district with a limited budget, Rossi’s last domain, efficiency assessment, is crucial.  If a goal of the iPad program is to spread to all the schools, efficiency must be proved.  This task is difficult when the ROI is not in dollar amounts but is determined by student achievement.  A few possible cost benefits could be: the use of electronic databases instead of paper encyclopedias, sharing a set of iPads instead of buying iPads for all classrooms, and the mobility of the iPads compared to students computers. 

Binkerhoff’s Success Case Method includes a write-up to communicate the evaluation outcomes with the teachers and administration.  This will explain the details of the program, how it was successful, and how the success can be continued long term. 

            The instructional design evaluation models discussed in this chapter include both formative and summative evaluations to assess planning decisions, processes, and results.  Binkerhoff’s and Rossi’s evaluations did not address behavior like Kilpatrick’s Training Evaluation Model.  It is important to determine if the learner will be able to transfer the knowledge learned to an on the job application.  For my iPad program, it will be important to determine if the students will be able to use the iPads in subject areas other than what was specifically taught.  As the students move on to future grades, will iPad use continue in future classes?   

Chapter's 12 & 13 focus on project management and how to manage projects when resources are scarce. You have been assigned to develop a series of professional development sessions focusing on technology use in the classroom for teachers during a time of economic decline. How will you use Situational Leadership to facilitate this project and manage scarce resources? 

            The school district I most recently worked for experienced all stages of the economic cycle.  I was hired during economic growth and then experienced the peak, decline, and trough.  The cycles were due to an extreme increase in population that leveled off over the years.  During the time of growth, two elementary schools and a high school were opened which caused an increase in staff.  An influx of technology also occurred to support the expectations of the growing community.  When the district was entering the trough, resources were becoming limited in all aspects including, people, time, and money however, learning and innovation must continue.

            One positive element of the situation was that an enormous amount of technology was purchased during the growth and peak so every classroom has a Promethean Board, Elmo, students in 5^th grade and up have personal laptops, and every school is equipped with a computer lab.  Since technology is already in place, money will only be an issue concerning salaries. 

            The team will consist of one teacher from each grade level, curriculum facilitators, and a technology facilitator.  Since people and time are limited the team will meet in person initially to discuss the details and expectations of the staff development but further communication will be through email.  Communication is a major component of situational leadership.  The communication during the first meeting will be very direct and the leader will take a supervisory role to ensure the team understands the plan to reach the desired goal and what each person’s role is in the planning process.   

            Conducting discussions through email will save everyone time but the leader must be very clear when conversing through email without any hints of sarcasm.  It is impossible for a group of teachers to meet during the day and the district cannot pay the teachers for their time spent after school working on the project so individuals will be expected to work on their own time.  Phase two of situational leadership becomes very important now.  The leader must ensure the team “buys in” to the project.  To boost morale, the leader will meet with each team member individually when it is best for the member.  During this time, the leader will listen openly to questions, concerns, and ideas while providing clear feedback and encouragement.  After meeting with team members, the leader will compile the information and email the entire team to keep everyone updated.  This process will continue until completion of the project. 

            Phase three requires the leader to focus on results and ensure the team is rewarded for effort.  A reward for effort can be difficult when money is limited.  A reward for a teacher could be extra planning time during the day while an aid covers her class or recognition in front of her peers for her effort in creating the project.  Since the facilitators are not responsible for a class of students during the day, they can be rewarded with an extended lunch break. 

            The team will meet face to face at the end of the project to clarify any concerns and tie up loose ends.  During this meeting, the leader will not have a supervisory role but will monitor the discussion instead.  The leader will step back and allow the team to work. 

Section 2: Theories and Models of Learning and Instruction

1.   This section of the book presents various theories and models that form the foundations of instructional design and technology, including the evolution of approaches to instruction and learning over time. In your blog for this week, reflect on the following: Epistemology (the study of what and how we come to know) is discussed in multiple chapters in this section. Distinguish epistemology from instructional methods or theories. What are the differences between theories, methods, or models of learning and epistemologies or underlying beliefs about ways of knowing?

Epistemology is the study of how we learn and instructional methods, theories, and models are used to enhance the learning process.  According to theorists, the process of learning does not include human development which happens naturally and it does not include changes in ability which are not permanent. 

Recent theories consider the process of learning to be not an individual process but an instructional process merged with a cultural process.  Our surroundings affect the way we interpret and understand the world around us.  According to behavioral learning theories, the behavior must change for learning to be accomplished and instructional feedback must occur for reinforcement.  Cognitive information processing theory also requires feedback.  Continual feedback throughout the learning cycle is “used to continually modify what is stored in memory and used to guide performance,” (p. 37). 

The schema theory involves the use of long term memory or packets of information called schema.  For students to learn using schema, information must be presented in ways to reduce cognitive load by presenting only the needed information without distractors.  Situated learning takes into account cultural learning and the learner’s participation within a community.  Members of the community learn through practice. 

The constructivist learning theory puts more emphasis on the learner being actively involved and how the learner “imposes organization and meaning on the surrounding environment and constructs knowledge in the process,” (p. 40).  Through the process of constructivist learning, the teacher becomes the “guide on the side” but the teacher must address misconceptions throughout the learning process. 

Through epistemology, instructional methods, theories, and models were created.  By understanding how people learn, we can select parts of instructional models to further our student’s understanding.  I believe constructivist theories have played a big role in the instructional design we use in the classroom today.  The one who is actively learning is the one using more energy, thus we must shift the energy from the teacher to the student.  It may take more energy to create a lesson using instructional methods based on constructivist theories but during the lesson presentation the students will work harder than the teacher.  I can remember how I felt at the end of the day after lecturing all day.  I am the tired one while the students are bored but full of energy once they leave the room.  I worked harder than the students therefore, they learned less and had more energy in the end. 

Epistemology has given researchers and instructional designers expertise and ways of deepening the way knowledge is tested and shared.  The study of learning has shown us that students do not learn best through sit and get but we must “focus on the development of instructional interventions that develop complex pattern recognition, build knowledge structures that focus on big ideas [to] yield more durable learning,” (p. 58).

There is an abundance of instructional theories and methods to use when presenting instruction but I believe they all use some of the same elements learned through epistemology.  The learners must be actively involved in a meaningful lesson with relevance to their life and there must be feedback that allows the learner to correct errors in understanding.  Our goal should not be to follow any instructional model step by step but to use our understanding of epistemology to select parts from a few models to create lessons that will cultivate learning. 

   

2.   Chapters in this section present two contrasting epistemic stances: positivist and relativist. However, a third stance, the contextualist or hermeneutical, is also widely recognized. This stance falls somewhere between the strictly objectivist/positivist beliefs about knowing and the purely subjectivist/relativist stance. While designers and educators with a positivist stance generally apply behaviorist principles to the design and development of instruction, those with either a contextualist or relativist epistemological framework employ constructivist theories and methods. However, relativists ascribe to radical constructivist approaches, while contextualists draw upon social constructivist theories and models. Based on what you’ve read about positivist and relativist epistemologies, as well as behaviorist and constructivist approaches, try to more fully describe a contextualist epistemology. How might it differ from either a relativist or positivist stance, and how might social constructivism differ from either behaviorist or radical constructivist approached to learning and instruction?

            The behaviorist theories focused “linking discrete stimuli to responses through association or reinforcement,” (p. 53).  It was important to supply sufficient feedback to alter the learning process but it is not necessary to connect it to personal experiences.  The learner must show changes in behavior to demonstrate learning.  The constructivist approach believes the learner interacts with the environment and constructs knowledge depending on those interactions.  The focus is more on the process and not the end result.

Through contextualist epistemology, the learner acquires more knowledge when a real connection can be made to the lesson.  “Relevance and authenticity are crucial elements in this meaning making process,” (p. 58).  The key elements of a lesson based on contextualism are: making a personal connection and invoking real experiences.  By making a personal connection through real experiences, the learner will be more likely to transfer the knowledge to other domains.  The contextualist approach requires feedback like the behaviorist theories and the learner must interact with the environment similar to the constructivist theories but it is taken a step further by requiring a personal connection to “foster a conceptual change” while “building on their existing conceptions,” (p. 58)

            Social constructivism requires a community of learners all building on the experiences of the group through collaboration to construct knowledge.  Social constructivism is more group oriented while radical constructivism is about how a single learner interacts with information. 

            In contrast to contextualists, a radical constructivist believes “knowledge constructions do not have to correspond with reality to be meaningful,” (p. 40).  This is similar to a behaviorist’s theories in that the learner does not need to make a meaningful connection with the lesson to build knowledge. 

            The positivist stance requires students to gain understanding through the senses and evidence and not necessarily making personal connections to create understanding.  The stance is similar to a behaviorist’s view where feedback and reinforcement is important.   

3. Differing epistemic stances lead to differing approaches to learning and instruction, and ultimately to problem-solving. Explain differences in problem-solving when approached from behaviorist and constructivist perspectives. How do the approaches differ in both the nature of the problem to be solved and in facilitating the problem solving process? Finally, what effect might these differences have on learner motivation?

            An observable change in behavior is the primary outcome when problem solving from a behaviorist’s perspective.  The goal is stated before the lesson begins and if the goal is not accomplished learning did not occur.  From a constructivist’s perspective, the interaction with fellow students and with the environment is key in constructing new knowledge. 

From my understanding of the text, problem-based learning can be difficult from a behaviorist’s perspective.  Problem solving must include the following characteristics: authentic and relate to everyday life and work, relevant to the learner to provide intrinsic motivation, engages deeper learning, and the learner must engage in the problem in a meaningful way. 

Problem solving fits a constructivist’s model better since the priority is for the learner to construct or create new knowledge through the environment.  The students are enabled to work on problems in a group setting where there is not always one exact answer.  A behaviorist is typically looking for a particular outcome to prove learning but different groups may arrive at different solutions depending on the strategy used to solve the problem. 

When teaching math using a behaviorist’s perspective, I envision my students working out word problems independently with help or hints from me when needed.  Choosing the correct answer is proof of learning.  The problem may be based on real-world experiences but there is not interaction among learners to facilitate a deeper understanding.  This is not true problem solving in my opinion.  Authentic problem solving can be chaotic and appear unorganized to an outsider but if the teacher has set up an environment to encourage constructive learning, the students will understand the expectations.  In my classroom, the students are often spread around the room working together to solve real world problems.  My goal is always to be a helper and not the source of all knowledge.  The students are expected to work out the problem together and I will help only when necessary.  Determining whether each child fully understands the solution can be difficult.  By discussing the plan and outcome with each group, the teacher can determine proof of learning. 

It can be extremely frustrating when a student asks, “Why do I need to know this?” but that is actually a very important question.  Why are we teaching our students random science or social study facts?  Learner motivation plays a major role in what a student actually learns and comprehends.  If the lesson is not authentic, relevant, and engaging, students will begin to “check out.”  Problem solving using a constructivist’s model will foster more intrinsic motivation.  Using a behaviorist’s model, the teacher is the supplier of information and feedback while the student takes it in.  The students are not expected to interact with the world to form new ideas.  Instead of teaching in isolation, a constructivist problem solving lesson will require students to discover facts while trying to find a solution to a problem.  Discovering information instead of receiving it always makes a learner comprehend more and makes a learner more likely to apply it to future situations.